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Spanish olive cultivation THE OLIVE TREE: ITS ORIGINS
The olive tree is a species originating from the eastern Mediterranean (Asia Minor), where it was first cultivated for its fruits, the olive, and the juice extracted from them: Olive oil. The high value of its produce lead to the spread of the olive tree across the whole of the Mediterranean.
As a botanical species, the cultivated olive tree (Olea europaea L.) comes from a wild variety (Olea chrysophylla Lam.) which evolved via the oleaster (Olea oleaster L. or Olea europaea oleaster). Native to the Mediterranean, the olive tree is very well suited to harsh environmental conditions, such as droughts and high temperatures, and tends to grow in poor, though well-aerated, soils.
In its native territory, the olive tree flowers towards the end of spring (April - May) and its fruits, olives, ripen throughout the summer until the first stage of ripening at the beginning of autumn (September - October), known as the "green stage". The colour of the fruits continues to change with the onset of ripening until reaching full, physiological maturity in the early winter months.
The earliest known texts to mention the olive tree take the form of clay tablets dating back to the Mycenaean kingdom of King Minos (2500 BC) and testify to the importance of olive oil for the Cretan economy. The Greeks, for their part, incorporated measures to protect the olive tree into their legislation, as well as laws favouring their plantation and punishing those who uprooted or caused damage to them. Later, the Romans were great consumers of olives and olive oil originating from Hispania, particularly from Baetica (present day Andalusia).
Throughout the Mediterranean, the olive tree has been regarded as the symbol of peace and friendship and its oil has been attributed with healing, healthy and religious properties.
INTRODUCTION AND SPREAD OF THE OLIVE TREE IN SPAIN
It is not known exactly when cultivation of the olive tree began in Spain, though the most widely accepted theory suggests it was the Phoenicians or the Greeks that first introduced it here. However, its cultivation did not become prominent until after the arrival Scipio (211 BC).
During the Roman age, oil extracted from olive trees in Hispania was traded throughout the Western Roman empire. The abundant archaeological remains of amphoras with the Baetica stamp, used to transport the oil along the great European rivers, the Rhone, Garonne, Rhine and Upper Danube, testify to this.
However, the majority of the Baetican oil trade was controlled and absorbed by the population of Rome. Mount Testaccio can still be visited today, formed entirely as it is by the Baetican amphoras, perfectly recognisable by their stamp of origin, used to supply oil to the empire's capital.
This flourishing trade of Hispanic olive oil brought about the expansion of olive cultivation throughout the Betis river valley (now Guadalquivir) and as far as the hills of the Sierra Morena. Oil mills were built in the middle of olive forests while amphora industries grew up on the river banks, primarily of the Guadalquivir and the Genil.
And, although the olive tree essentially populated the southern half of Roman Hispania, there are quotes from the period that tell of its presence in the Tajo and Ebro valleys. Its importance is also referred to under Visigoth rule, with important advances in olive-growing; while Arabic sources indicate the abundance and extension of olive groves throughout the Guadalquivir valley during the early centuries of this civilisation.
The importance of olive cultivation acknowledged by Alonso de Herrera in his "Agricultura General" emphasises the vast expanses of land it occupied during the first half of the 16th century. The numerous olive grove remains found throughout Spain today also seem to confirm this. The presence of old isolated olive trees, or scattered irregular groups, also bear witness to the former plantations.
The construction of the rail network in the 19th century led to the spread of cultivation inland, until the map of olive groves in Spain was complete. Today, olive cultivation is once again in a state of expansion, primarily in the form of intensive irrigated plantations, and advanced olive-growing techniques are being applied to obtain high yields.
SPANISH OLIVE TREE VARIETIES
More than 100 varieties of olive tree are cultivated in Spain, many of them native and across a limited geographical area. The most representative varieties, both for milling and consumption as table olives, are as follows:
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ARBEQUINA:
La más representativa de Cataluña, produce aceites frutados, entre verdosos y amarillos, con aromas a manzana y almendra fresca, suaves y dulces. La planta es de poco vigor, con brotes largos y poco ramificados. La hoja es acanalada y ensanchada por el ápice, mientras que el fruto es pequeño, ovalado y casi simétrico.
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CORNICABRA:
Domina toda la zona central (Toledo, Ciudad Real y Madrid). Sus aceites son de color amarillo verdoso a oro. Aromas frescos y sabor entre dulce, amargo y algo picante. El árbol es de vigor medio con ramos de mediana longitud y con escasa formación de brotes. La hoja es larga y lanceolada y el fruto es largo curvo,asimétrico y con el vientre en forma de cuerno.
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EMPELTRE:
Típica aceituna del Bajo Aragón. Con ella se elaboran aceites de color entre amarillo paja y oro viejo. Tiene aromas de frutas, sobre todo de manzana y un sabor suave y dulce. Arbol de gran vigor con ramos erguidos y hojas anchas y algo alabeadas. El fruto es asimétrico y alargado.
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HOJIBLANCA:
Variedad dominante en Málaga y Córdoba, con doble aptitud para aceite y para mesa. Da aceites de color verde intenso, con aromas de frutas maduras y recuerdos de aguacate, presentado un sabor agradable con ligeras puntas de amargos y picor. El vigor del árbol es de medio a bueno con copa de densidad media. La hoja es alargada y parcialmente acanalada y el fruto es de tamaño grande y oblongo.
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PICUAL:
La gran variedad predominante en Jaén. Su aceite tiene una gran estabilidad y personalidad, fuerza, frutosidad, un amargor intenso y claros tonos picantes. El vigor del árbol es bueno, con copas vigorosas y gran desarrollo foliáceo. La hoja es alargada y el fruto elipsoidal.
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BLANQUETA:
Se cultiva en Alicante y en el sur de Valencia. Produce aceites de tonalidad verde hoja y aromas frutados con notas de tomate verde. En boca desarrolla sensaciones picantes y suavemente amargas.
El árbol es de poco vigor con ramos cortos, la hoja es corta y lanceolada y el fruto es algo ovalado y ligeramente asimétrico.
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CACEREÑA:
Llamada también Manzanilla cacereña por su difusión en la provincia de Cáceres. Es una variedad de doble aptitud y muy apreciada para el aderezo, tanto en verde como en negra, por la calidad de su pulpa. Es un árbol de escaso vigor, con floración y maduración tempranas. Sus hojas son planas y de longitud media y los frutos tienen forma esférica, aunque algo asimétricos.
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VERDIAL DE BADAJOZ:
Está presente en las vegas del Guadiana. Produce aceites con aromas a aceituna verde y frutos secos (almendra). En la boca destaca por su dulzor. El árbol es resistente a la sequía y se emplea como patrón. El fruto es de gran tamaño y es de doble aptitud (aceite y mesa).
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CARRASQUEÑA:
Es una subvariedad de la manzanilla y se le conoce por este nombre en la provincia de Cáceres.
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LECHIN DE SEVILLA:
Se distribuye por las provincias de Sevilla y Córdoba, principalmente. Su aceite es relativamente inestable con un aroma medio y equilibrado y un sabor amargo. El árbol es vigoroso con ramos cortos y copa espesa. La hoja es corta y casi plana y el fruto es elipsoidal y algo abombado por el dorso.
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MANZANILLA:
Se cultiva en la provincia de Sevilla, principalmente en las proximidades de la capital. El árbol es de poco vigor y de copa poco densa. Las hojas son cortas y gruesas y el fruto es ovalado. Se emplea fundamentalmente como aceituna para aderezo.
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GORDAL:
Tanto su origen como su cultivo está vinculado a la provincia de Sevilla. El árbol es de vigor medio con ramos largos y gruesos. La hoja es alargada y muy recta y el fruto es de gran tamaño, acorazonado y algo asimétrico. Su aptitud es para aderezo.
GEOGRAPHY OF SPANISH OLIVE CULTIVATION
The olive cultivation spreads across 34 provinces of 13 Autonomous Communities. It occupies a total area of 2,584,564 2,476,540 ha, of which 96% corresponds to varieties of olive used for milling (2,377,943 ha), while the remaining 4% is dedicated to table varieties (98,597 ha). Its geographical distribution is as follows:
| Comunidades Autónomas | Total | |
| Hectareas | % | |
| Andalucía | 1,554,771 | 60.16 |
| Extremadura | 269,350 | 10.42 |
| Castilla-La Mancha | 406,751 | 15.74 |
| Cataluña | 116,044 | 4.49 |
| Comunidad Valenciana | 94,723 | 3.66 |
| Aragón | 59,477 | 2.3 |
| Resto | 83,448 | 3.23 |
| . | ||
| TOTAL | 2,584,564 | 100 |
| . | ||
The total irrigated olive-growing area stands at 555,673 ha, accounting for 22% of the total area, a percentage which increases to 30% in Andalusia The most widely used irrigation system is localised in nature, and constitutes 85% of the total irrigated olive grove area.
The total number of olive trees in Spain stands at 282,696,000 , and their distribution across the most representative Autonomous Communities is as follows:
| Comunidades Autónomas | Número de Olivos |
| Andalucía | 174,788,000 |
| Extremadura | 29,602,000 |
| Castilla-La Mancha | 36,263,000 |
| Cataluña | 14,307,000 |
| Comunidad Valenciana | 10,963,000 |
| Aragón | 5,889,000 |
| Resto | 10,884,000 |
| . | |
| TOTAL | 282,696,000 |
| . | |
Olive-growing Spain is divided into ten large regions (Ministry of Agriculture, Fishing and Food-1972), detailed below, alongside the most representative varieties grown in each:
Zone 1 or the Picual Zone.- Comprises the province of Jaen and the regions Iznalloz (Granada) and Bujalance (Cordoba), with the predominant variety grown being the Picual, which is typically sent to oil mills.
Zone 2 or the Hojiblanca Zone.- Includes the province of Cordoba (except the regions Bujalance and La Carlota), and the regions Estepa (Seville), Loja (Granada) and Antequera (Malaga). The most representative variety is the Hojiblanca, which is suitable for use both as table olives and milling.
Zone 3 or Western Andalusia.- Comprises the province of Seville (except the region Estepa), the La Carlota region (Cordoba) and the provinces of Huelva and Cadiz. It is one of the most heterogeneous zones in terms of varieties since, besides those used for milling (Verdial from Huévar and Lechín from Sevilla), typical table varieties are also grown there (Manzanilla and Gordal Sevillana).
Zone 4 or Eastern Andalusia.- Comprises the province of Malaga (except the Antequera region), the province of Granada (except the Iznalloz and Loja districts) and the province of Almeria. Apart from the Picual and Hojiblanca varieties already mentioned, it is important to mention three others that are typical to the area: Verdial from Vélez-Malaga and Picual from Almeria (milling) and Aloreña (dual usage).
Zone 5 or West.- Comprises the provinces of Badajoz and Caceres and producer districts of Ávila, Salamanca and Zamora. It, too, is a relatively heterogeneous region in terms of its varieties, with the Cacereña variety, suitable for use as table olives, being dominant in Caceres, and the Morisca (milling) and the Carrasqueña (table) varieties being most common in Badajoz and, in particular, the Barros region; the Verdial variety from Badajoz is also important.
Zone 6 or Centre.- Comprises the Autonomous Communities of Castilla-La Mancha and Madrid. The most important variety grown here is the Cornicabra, which produces very high quality oils, as well as the Castellana, Alfafara and Gordal from Hellín
Zone 7 or Levante.- Comprises the provinces of Alicante and Valencia and the Region of Murcia. There are many varieties grown here, the majority of which are native to the region, such as the Villalonga, Changlot Real and Blanqueta, although they have only a slight presence on the national level,.
Zone 8 or Ebro Valley.- Comprises Aragon, La Rioja, Navarre and Álava. The most widespread variety is the Empeltre, grown alongside the Farga variety in many districts.
Zone 9 or Tortosa-Castellón.- Comprises the south of the province of Tarragona (Bajo Ebro-Montsiá) and the province of Castellón. The majority of varieties are native, such as the Farga, Sevillenca and Morrut.
Zone 10 or the Arbequina Zone.- Comprises the Autonomous Communities of Catalonia (except the south of the province of Tarragona) and the Balearic Isles. In addition to the Arbequina variety, after which the zone is named, producing very high quality oils, other varieties include Verdiell, Empeltre and Argudell. (Today, the Arbequina variety is very widely spread throughout the main olive growing zones for the great commercial value of their oils).
